A 70-year-old man presents with 24 hours of painful acute urinary retention.

1. List five obstructive and three non-obstructive causes of acute urinary retention. 8 marks

The patient returns three days later with a paraphimosis from a failure to retract the foreskin during IDC insertion. The IDC remains in situ.

2. Left untreated, what is the primary complication of paraphimosis? 1 mark

3. List three management steps to treat paraphimosis. 3 marks